| Appendix
3 |
Definitions
of Coding Criteria
Four types of information, achievement scores and individual descriptors
were categorised, recorded and/or calculated.
Student Information
Student reading level, year level, ethnic group, and text type were
available through NEMP data, and the gender of students was identified
from viewing the videotapes . This information allowed results to
be collated and analysed across subgroups. . |
| • |
Reading level
– students were identified as reading at bands 0, 1, 2 or 3 |
| • |
Year level –
students were identified as being in year 4 or year 8 |
| • |
Ethnicity –
students were identified as being Pakeha, Maori or Pacific Islander. |
| • |
Text type –
students read fiction, non-fiction or non-book texts. Non-book texts
included pamphlets, tape covers and signs available in the wider community. |
| • |
Gender –
students were identified as male or female |
| |
|
Achievement
scores
Student achievement scores relating to comprehension and reading rate,
and percentage rates of errors, self-corrections and strategies were
measured. Error, self-correction and strategy rates were calculated
as a percentage of the number of text words read to minimise the confounding
effect of the different text lengths across passages. |
| • |
Comprehension
- The NEMP-determined comprehension score for three literal questions
was recorded for each student. |
| • |
Reading
Rate - The reading rate for each student was calculated as
the percentage of words read per minute (wpm), to allow for differing
text passage lengths. I established five reading rate levels, based
on my years of teaching experience listening to students read unseen
instructional texts aloud, and tested these by personally carrying
out reading trials. Students were identified as reading at an “extremely
slow” oral reading rate (up to 29 wpm); a “very slow”
reading rate (30-59 wpm); a “slow” oral reading rate (60-89
wpm); a “moderate” oral reading rate (90-119 wpm); or
a “fast” reading rate (120 –149 wpm). |
| • |
Error
Rates – The error rate for each student was calculated
as a percentage of the number of text words read, to enable comparison
of performances across text passages of differing lengths. The last
inaccurate attempt for each error was transcribed, along with the
actual text word, to enable the student’s best attempt to be
analysed. Each transcribed error was identified as an “omission,
“insertion”, “substitution”, or “alternate
pronunciation” or as “can’t decipher”. An
attempt that could not be understood after five replays was identified
as “can’t decipher”. Errors involving reversals
were classified as substitutions. Omissions, insertions and substitutions
were further analysed and identified according to whether they involved
a “sound” or the entire “word”. A “sound”
error involved only one letter or blend contained within a word. Rates
were calculated for each separate error sub-type and for omissions,
insertions and substitution/reversals. |
| • |
Self-Correction
Rate - The self-correction rate for each student was calculated
as a percentage of the number of text words read, to enable comparison
of performances across text passages of differing lengths. A student’s
first incorrect attempt was also transcribed, along with the actual
text word. |
| • |
Strategy
Rates - A student’s initial response to any word not
evoking a prompt attempt was recorded. All strategies used were identified,
regardless of whether they led on to correct, incorrect or self-corrected
attempts. The strategy rate was calculated as a percentage of the
number of text words read. Each strategy was classified as a “context”,
“decoding”, “coping” or “mixed”
strategy. Context strategies were identified as ‘rereading”
up to the point of difficulty, ‘reading on/repeating”
the point of difficulty, taking a “guess”, or seeking
to “clarify meaning” from illustrations, the text, or
their own experience. Decoding strategies were identified as either
“sounding out” or “breaking the word into segments”.
Attempts to sound out a word might involve only the initial letter
or blend and attempts to segment a word might involve only the initial
syllable. Coping behaviours were identified as “seeking help”
from the teacher-administrator, making an “emotional reaction”
through body language or speech, or making “no/masked attempt”.
A masked attempt was usually undecipherable but it was unclear whether
a student was trying to achieve this result. A “mixed”
strategy occurred when a student used two strategies simultaneously.
Rates were calculated for each separate strategy sub-type and for
context, decoding, coping and mixed strategies. |
| |
|
Achievement
Descriptors
Specific descriptions of a student’s overall oral reading performance,
relating to expression and clarity of speech, clause/sentence structure
and breathing control, were identified. |
| • |
Oral reading
expression - students were identified as reading with “appropriate
expression” for a particular text, “some expression”
or “little/no expression”. |
| • |
Oral reading
clarity - students were identified as using “clear”, “mostly
clear”, “partly clear” or “unclear”
speech. |
| • |
Sentence/phrasing
structure and breath control - students were identified as exhibiting
“structure”, “some structure” or “little/no
structure” in regard to clauses and sentences. Clause structure
related to the student’s ability to read meaningful groups of
words in a connected manner eg The tree…had…long, thin
branches; whereas sentence structure related to the student’s
ability to pause between sentences and to indicate sentence endings
through changes in tone. Students were also identified as having “control”,
“some control” or “little/no” breath control.
Breath control related to the student’s ability to maintain
sufficient breathing control to read the text without needing to gasp
for air or slurp up excess saliva. |
| |
|
Impressionistic
individual Descriptors
Coding categories were established to provide information about a
wide range of observable personal characteristics of students, based
on the viewing and discussion of the initial six tapes. These descriptors
related to a wide range of behaviours: speech, visual/sensory movements,
verbal communication, sociability, reliance on the teacher-administrator,
volume of speech, confidence, risk-taking behaviour, interest in task,
effort/perseverance, wakefulness, physical well-being and movement,
emotional reaction to challenge, response to text and following instructions.
A student’s speech and visual/sensory movements were described
and personal characteristics observed for signs of extreme levels
of specific behaviours. Students not exhibiting extreme levels of
specific behaviours were identified as exhibiting “moderate”
levels. |
| • |
Speech
- The presence of “physical impediments” (stutter, protruding
teeth etc), or “accent” was recorded. |
| • |
Visual/sensory
motor behaviour – the predominant reading distance
between the student and the book was identified as “accepts
set-up”, “moves book/head closer”, or “moves
book/head further away”. The predominant place keeping behaviours
of students were identified as “keeps place with eyes”,
“keeps page place with hand”, or “keeps word place
with finger”. |
| • |
Verbal communication
– students were identified as being “chatty”, making
“moderate” levels of conversation, or being “reticent”. |
| • |
Sociability
– observable signs that a student “initiates” or
“avoids” reciprocation of social contact with the teacher-administrator
through verbal or non-verbal behaviours were recorded, such as making
eye-to-eye contact or sharing a response to the text. |
| • |
Reliance on
the teacher-administrator – students were identified as “dependent”,
“moderate” or “independent” in regard to handling
the reading task. Dependent behaviours included seeking assurance
or help during the task. |
| • |
Volume
of speech - The volume of a students’ oral reading
voice was identified as “loud”, “moderate”
or “quiet”. Allowances were made for technical issues
such as microphone placement. |
| • |
Confidence
– students were observed for physical or verbal signs of being
“over-confident” or “under-confident”. Actions
such as covering the face or submissive posture were identified as
“under-confident”, while behaviours such as boasting were
identified as “over-confident”. |
| • |
Risk-taking
– students were identified as making “many wrong attempts”
at unknown words, making a “moderate” attempt, or making
“few/no attempts”. |
| • |
Interest
in task – students were observed for signs of being
particularly “enthusiastic” or “unmotivated”
by the oral reading task, or were identified as exhibiting “moderate”
behaviours in this regard. Facial expressions and/or body language
provided clues, with an “enthusiastic” student leaning
forward expectantly and an unmotivated student slumping back apathetically.
|
| • |
Effort/perseverance
– students were coded as exhibiting “concentrated effort”
across time, “moderate” effort or “little/no effort”.
Students exhibiting “concentrated effort” stayed on task
and continued to apply themselves through consecutive difficulties
across several minutes. |
| • |
Wakefulness
– students were observed for signs of being “alert”,
“moderate”, or “tired” while listening to
instructions or carrying out the oral reading task. Regular yawning,
leaning on the desk, and stretching were identified as tiredness;
whereas sharp reactions and a wide-awake expression were identified
as alertness. |
| • |
Physical
well-being – students were identified as being ”in
good health”, in “moderate” health or “unwell”.
Observable symptoms such as nose blowing or wiping were viewed as
signs of concern, along with evidence of injury e,g wearing a bandage.
|
| • |
Physical
movement – students were observed for exceptional levels
of physical movement and identified as “active”, “moderate”
or “still”. “Active” children regularly moved
their bodies and/or limbs as they read the text passage, while “still”
children predominantly stayed in one physical position throughout
the task. |
| • |
Emotional
reaction to challenge – students were identified as
“frustrated”, “embarrassed”, “using
humour”, being “tearful” or “moderate”
when faced with an unknown word. Exasperated facial expressions, physical
gestures or verbal expressions were identified as frustration; covering
of the face or physically cringing as signs of embarrassment; making
fun of the difficulty as humour; and actual tears or sobs as tearfulness.
|
| • |
Response
to the text – students were identified as making an
“active response”, a “moderate” response or
“little/no response” to the message, theme or mood of
the text. An “active response” included such behaviours
as scanning illustrations to enhance involvement with the text and
sharing emotional responses or a related life experience with the
teacher-administrator e.g. “we’ve been to a farm like
that.” Students making “little/no response” displayed
no outward sign of having read a particularly funny or dramatic piece
of text. |
| • |
Following
instructions – students were observed carrying out
general instructions regarding selection procedures and starting place
for oral reading. They were identified as being “successful”,
having “moderate success”, or as having “little/no
success”. |
